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11-Deoxycortisol

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata)

Summary
Adrenal intermediate immediately upstream of cortisol, reflecting ACTH-driven steroidogenesis and diurnal HPA activity.

17-Hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP)

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata/reticularis); also ovaries/testes

Summary
Adrenal steroid intermediate immediately upstream of 11-deoxycortisol/cortisol; mirrors ACTH-driven steroidogenesis.

Activin A

Primary Source Gland: Ovary/testis support cells, pituitary, stromal/immune cells (broad tissue expression)

Summary
Activin A enhances SMAD2/3 signaling to modulate FSH, differentiation, and tissue remodeling under normal physiology.

Activin AB

Primary Source Gland: Gonadal support cells (granulosa/Sertoli), pituitary/stromal/immune and epithelial compartments (broad expression)

Summary
Activin AB enhances SMAD2/3 signaling to fine-tune FSH and tissue remodeling within normal physiology.

Activin B

Primary Source Gland: Pituitary, gonadal support cells, stromal/immune and epithelial compartments (broad expression)

Summary
Activin B enhances SMAD2/3 signaling to modulate FSH and tissue remodeling within normal physiology.

Adiponectin

Primary Source Gland: Adipose tissue (white adipose depots are the major source)

Summary
Adiponectin influences fuel selection, supports fatty acid use, and helps coordinate metabolic energy regulation.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Primary Source Gland: Anterior pituitary (corticotrophs)

Summary
ACTH drives adrenal cortisol synthesis through MC2R and cAMP–PKA signaling.

Adrenomedullin (ADM)

Primary Source Gland: Vascular endothelium; adrenal medulla; heart; lungs

Summary
Widely expressed vasoactive peptide regulating vascular tone and fluid balance.

Adrenomedullin (ADM)

Primary Source Gland: Endothelium, adrenal medulla, heart, lungs, kidneys

Summary
Endothelium-derived peptide supporting vascular tone and protection.

Aldosterone

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal cortex (zona glomerulosa)

Summary
Aldosterone, via MR, drives renal sodium conservation and potassium excretion, stabilizing extracellular volume and acid–base balance.

Amphiregulin (AREG)

Primary Source Gland: Epithelial tissues, immune cells, stromal cells, tumor cells, macrophages, keratinocytes

Summary
Amphiregulin is a local EGFR ligand that supports epithelial repair under normal conditions, but in cancer biology excess amphiregulin signaling can drive prol…

Amylin (Islet Amyloid Polypeptide, IAPP)

Primary Source Gland: Pancreatic β-cells

Summary
β-cell co-hormone moderating post-prandial glycemia and appetite.

Androstenedione

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal cortex (zona reticularis); gonads

Summary
Adrenal/gonadal steroid precursor converted locally to testosterone or estrogens, contributing to reproductive, skeletal, and metabolic signaling.

Angiopoietin-2 (ANGPT2)

Primary Source Gland: Endothelial cells, vascular tissues, stromal cells, tumor-associated endothelial cells

Summary
ANGPT2 is a major vascular remodeling and angiogenesis signaling factor involved in endothelial destabilization, tumor angiogenesis, inflammatory vascular sign…

Angiotensin II

Primary Source Gland: Generated in circulation/endothelium (lung ACE prominent) and in local tissue RAS (kidney, heart, vessels, brain).

Summary
Ang II couples kidney-sensed volume status to vascular tone and adrenal sodium signaling.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH / Vasopressin)

Primary Source Gland: Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis), synthesized in hypothalamic supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei

Summary
Vasopressin regulates kidney water reabsorption and vascular tone through V2 and V1 receptor pathways.

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

Primary Source Gland: Atrial myocytes of the heart

Summary
ANP signals the kidneys and vasculature to balance circulating volume and vascular tone.

Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs, endocrine-relevant members)

Primary Source Gland: Produced by osteoblasts/osteocytes, chondrocytes, stromal and epithelial cells; not confined to a single gland.

Summary
BMPs coordinate bone/cartilage formation and connective-tissue organization via SMAD1/5/8 signaling.

Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)

Primary Source Gland: Ventricular cardiomyocytes of the heart

Summary
BNP signals the kidneys and vasculature to excrete sodium and water and adjust vascular tone as needed.

C-type Natriuretic Peptide (CNP)

Primary Source Gland: Vascular endothelium; CNS

Summary
Endothelial peptide acting via NPR-B to raise cGMP and relax vessels; roles in bone growth.

C-type Natriuretic Peptide (CNP)

Primary Source Gland: Endothelium, brain

Summary
Short-lived natriuretic peptide supporting vascular relaxation and growth-plate biology.

Calcitonin

Primary Source Gland: Thyroid parafollicular (C) cells

Summary
Calcitonin acutely buffers rises in plasma calcium by reducing osteoclast-mediated bone resorption and adjusting renal handling.

Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D)

Primary Source Gland: Kidney (proximal tubule activation)

Summary
Active vitamin D controlling Ca/P balance and bone/immune genes.

Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3)

Primary Source Gland: Kidney (1α-hydroxylase activity)

Summary
Active vitamin D hormone controlling Ca/P balance via VDR.

Chemokine CCL2 / Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1)

Primary Source Gland: Macrophages, monocytes, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, adipocytes, epithelial cells, tumor cells

Summary
CCL2/MCP-1 is a major monocyte-recruiting chemokine. In cancer biology, elevated CCL2 signaling is linked with tumor-associated macrophage accumulation, chroni…

Chemokine CCL5 / RANTES

Primary Source Gland: T-cells, macrophages, platelets, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, fibroblasts, tumor cells

Summary
CCL5/RANTES is a major immune-cell recruiting chemokine. In cancer biology, elevated CCL5 signaling is linked with chronic inflammation, tumor-associated macro…

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Primary Source Gland: Duodenal and jejunal enteroendocrine I-cells

Summary
Cholecystokinin coordinates bile release, enzyme secretion, gastric pacing, and satiety.

Connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF / CCN2)

Primary Source Gland: Fibroblasts, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, hepatic stellate cells, stromal cells, tumor-associated fibroblasts

Summary
CTGF is a major fibrosis and extracellular matrix signaling protein involved in stromal remodeling, angiogenesis, tissue stiffening, fibroblast activation, and…

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)

Primary Source Gland: Hypothalamus (Paraventricular nucleus)

Summary
CRH triggers ACTH release and coordinates the HPA stress-response network.

Cortisol

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata)

Summary
Cortisol coordinates circadian energy availability and immune tone via GR-mediated genomic programs.

Cortisone

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal cortex produces cortisol; cortisone arises via peripheral oxidation (notably kidney, placenta, colon).

Summary
Cortisone is the inactive partner of cortisol, enabling tissue-specific control of glucocorticoid action through the 11β-HSD shuttle.

CXCL12 / Stromal Cell-Derived Factor 1 (SDF-1)

Primary Source Gland: Bone marrow stromal cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, immune cells, epithelial cells, tumor-associated stromal cells

Summary
CXCL12/SDF-1 is a major stromal chemokine that guides immune-cell movement, stem-cell trafficking, angiogenesis, and tissue repair. In cancer biology, excess C…

CXCL8 / Interleukin-8 (IL-8)

Primary Source Gland: Macrophages, neutrophils, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, epithelial cells, tumor cells

Summary
IL-8 is a major inflammatory chemokine involved in neutrophil recruitment, angiogenesis, inflammatory signaling, and metastatic tumor biology. Elevated IL-8 si…

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal cortex (zona reticularis)

Summary
Adrenal steroid precursor that supports local androgen/estrogen formation in peripheral tissues, with diurnal and age-related dynamics.

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

Primary Source Gland: Testes (via testosterone supply); peripheral tissues (prostate, skin, hair follicles) convert T→DHT

Summary
DHT is a high-affinity androgen formed from testosterone in target tissues, activating AR-dependent gene programs for androgenic development and function.

Dopamine

Primary Source Gland: CNS dopaminergic neurons (SNc, VTA), hypothalamus; peripheral neurons

Summary
Catecholamine produced from L-tyrosine that regulates movement, motivation, prolactin inhibition, and renal/vascular functions.

Endothelin-1 (EDN1)

Primary Source Gland: Vascular endothelium (primary source)

Summary
Endothelin-1 is an endothelium-derived peptide that powerfully constricts vessels via ETA/ETB while endothelial ETB can release NO/PGI2 for local balance.

Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)

Primary Source Gland: Widely synthesized; high expression in salivary glands and gastrointestinal tract.

Summary
EGF supports cell renewal, epithelial integrity, and regulated growth signaling.

Epinephrine (Adrenaline)

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal medulla (chromaffin cells)

Summary
Catecholamine made in adrenal medulla that rapidly coordinates cardiovascular, metabolic, and respiratory responses.

Epiregulin (EREG)

Primary Source Gland: Epithelial tissues, tumor cells, stromal cells, macrophages, keratinocytes

Summary
Epiregulin is a local EGFR-family ligand that supports epithelial repair and tissue remodeling under normal conditions, but in cancer biology excess epiregulin…

Erythropoietin (EPO)

Primary Source Gland: Kidney (renal cortex interstitial cells)

Summary
EPO supports oxygen transport by promoting red blood cell development.

Estradiol (E2)

Primary Source Gland: Ovary (granulosa cells); peripheral tissues (adipose, skin, brain) via local aromatase

Summary
Estradiol is the predominant estrogen of reproductive age, governing reproductive cycling, bone maintenance, and broad metabolic/vascular programs via ER signa…

Estriol (E3)

Primary Source Gland: Placenta (fetoplacental unit during pregnancy); peripheral tissues (adipose/skin/brain) at low levels otherwise

Summary
Estriol is a physiologic estrogen most abundant in pregnancy, acting via ERs to support reproductive, skeletal, metabolic, and vascular programs.

Estrone (E1)

Primary Source Gland: Ovary (granulosa cells premenopause); peripheral tissues (adipose, skin, brain) via aromatase

Summary
Estrone is an endogenous estrogen interconverting with estradiol and acting via ERs to support reproductive, skeletal, metabolic, and neuroendocrine programs.

Fetuin-A / Alpha-2-HS Glycoprotein (AHSG)

Primary Source Gland: Liver hepatocytes

Summary
Fetuin-A is a liver-derived metabolic signaling protein associated with insulin resistance, chronic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, fatty liver biology,…

Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF, endocrine-relevant family)

Primary Source Gland: Liver (FGF21), ileum/enterocytes (FGF19), osteocytes (FGF23); many tissues express paracrine FGFs.

Summary
Endocrine-relevant FGFs coordinate systemic metabolic adaptation, bile acid feedback, and phosphate–vitamin D balance.

Fibroblast Growth Factor 19 (FGF19)

Primary Source Gland: Ileal enterocytes, intestinal epithelial cells

Summary
FGF19 is an intestinal-liver endocrine growth factor that regulates bile acid feedback and liver metabolism. In cancer biology, excessive FGF19/FGFR4 signaling…

Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 (FGF2 / Basic FGF)

Primary Source Gland: Fibroblasts, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, smooth muscle cells, stromal cells, tumor cells

Summary
FGF2 is a major angiogenic and stromal growth factor. In cancer biology, excess FGF2 signaling can support tumor blood-vessel formation, fibroblast activation,…

Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 (FGF23)

Primary Source Gland: Osteocytes (bone)

Summary
Bone-derived peptide that lowers serum phosphate by reducing renal reabsorption and calcitriol synthesis via FGFR1c–α-Klotho signaling.

Fibroblast Growth Factor-21 (FGF21)

Primary Source Gland: Liver (major); also adipose tissue and skeletal muscle (context-dependent)

Summary
FGF21 helps the body switch fuels under fasting and macronutrient stress, supporting fatty-acid use and ketone handling.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Primary Source Gland: Anterior pituitary (gonadotrophs)

Summary
FSH supports follicle maturation in ovaries and Sertoli cell function in testes.

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) / Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide

Primary Source Gland: Enteroendocrine K-cells (duodenum, proximal jejunum)

Summary
GIP is an incretin that enhances glucose-dependent insulin secretion and coordinates postprandial metabolism.

Gastrin

Primary Source Gland: G cells of the gastric antrum

Summary
Gastrin supports protein digestion by stimulating stomach acid and enzyme function.

Ghrelin

Primary Source Gland: Stomach (especially fundus), small intestine, pancreas, hypothalamus (minor)

Summary
Ghrelin signals hunger and helps regulate meal timing and digestive readiness.

Glucagon

Primary Source Gland: Pancreatic alpha cells (Islets of Langerhans)

Summary
Glucagon promotes glucose release from storage during fasting and supports sustained cellular energy availability.

Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1)

Primary Source Gland: Intestinal L-cells (distal ileum/colon)

Summary
Meal-coupled incretin supporting insulin, satiety, and gastric pacing.

Glucagon-Like Peptide-2 (GLP-2)

Primary Source Gland: Intestinal L-cells

Summary
Supports intestinal trophism, absorption and barrier function.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Primary Source Gland: Hypothalamus (preoptic area and arcuate/mediobasal hypothalamus)

Summary
GnRH pulsatile signaling at the pituitary controls LH/FSH release, coordinating reproductive endocrine function.

Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor (G-CSF)

Primary Source Gland: Bone marrow stromal cells, macrophages, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, epithelial cells, tumor cells

Summary
G-CSF is a neutrophil-regulating cytokine. In cancer biology, excess tumor-derived G-CSF can support inflammatory recruitment, neutrophil expansion, MDSC accum…

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF)

Primary Source Gland: Macrophages, T-cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, epithelial cells, tumor cells

Summary
GM-CSF is an immune growth factor involved in leukocyte production, inflammatory signaling, macrophage activation, and tumor microenvironment communication. Ex…

Growth Hormone (GH)

Primary Source Gland: Anterior pituitary (somatotrophs)

Summary
GH coordinates growth and nutrient use by signaling tissues directly and via IGF-1.

Growth Hormone–Releasing Hormone (GHRH)

Primary Source Gland: Hypothalamus (arcuate nucleus to median eminence)

Summary
GHRH stimulates GH release from the pituitary through cAMP-PKA signaling.

Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF)

Primary Source Gland: No single endocrine gland; produced by mesenchymal/stromal cells, fibroblasts, macrophages.

Summary
HGF coordinates epithelial repair, controlled motility, and survival via MET-mediated RTK signaling.

Hepcidin (HAMP)

Primary Source Gland: Liver (hepatocytes)

Summary
Liver peptide hormone that lowers iron absorption/release by causing ferroportin internalization.

Heregulin / Neuregulin-1 (NRG1)

Primary Source Gland: Neural tissues, epithelial tissues, tumor cells, stromal cells, endothelial cells

Summary
Neuregulin-1 is an ERBB-family ligand that activates HER3 and HER4 signaling. In cancer biology excessive NRG1 signaling can promote survival signaling, migrat…

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

Primary Source Gland: Placenta (syncytiotrophoblast)

Summary
hCG activates LHCGR to sustain corpus luteum and progesterone in early pregnancy.

Inhibin A

Primary Source Gland: Ovary (granulosa cells); testis (Sertoli cells)

Summary
Inhibin A antagonizes activin to reduce FSH synthesis, contributing to normal reproductive axis feedback.

Inhibin B

Primary Source Gland: Ovary (granulosa cells); testis (Sertoli cells)

Summary
Inhibin B antagonizes activin to reduce FSH, coordinating normal ovarian follicle dynamics and Sertoli function.

Insulin

Primary Source Gland: Pancreatic beta cells (Islets of Langerhans)

Summary
Insulin plays a central role in nutrient handling and metabolic regulation. It promotes storage of glucose and lipids and coordinates energy utilization across…

Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1)

Primary Source Gland: Liver (primary), also produced in many tissues in paracrine/autocrine form

Summary
IGF-1 contributes to cellular growth, tissue repair, and metabolic recovery signaling.

Insulin-Like Growth Factor 2 (IGF-2)

Primary Source Gland: Liver (primary circulating production); also produced locally in many tissues.

Summary
IGF-2 supports tissue growth, developmental signaling, and cellular repair coordination.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6)

Primary Source Gland: Produced by monocytes/macrophages, T cells, and contracting skeletal muscle (myokine); also adipose and endothelium

Summary
IL-6 links immune cues with energy metabolism, coordinating acute-phase signaling and transient fuel mobilization.

Irisin (FNDC5 hormone form)

Primary Source Gland: Skeletal muscle

Summary
Exercise-stimulated myokine involved in metabolic adaptation signaling

Kisspeptin

Primary Source Gland: Hypothalamus (KISS1 neurons)

Summary
Kisspeptin regulates GnRH release and coordinates reproductive hormone signaling from hypothalamus to ovaries and testes.

Leptin

Primary Source Gland: White adipose tissue (subcutaneous and visceral)

Summary
Leptin signals stored energy status and helps modulate hunger and metabolic rate.

Leukotriene B₄ (LTB₄)

Primary Source Gland: Produced by leukocytes (not gland-based)

Summary
LTB₄ is a leukocyte-derived signaling lipid that promotes neutrophil activation and migration during inflammation.

Leukotriene C₄ (LTC₄)

Primary Source Gland: Leukocytes (mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, macrophages)

Summary
LTC₄ is a lipid signaling molecule that modulates vascular tone and inflammatory tissue response.

Leukotriene D₄ (LTD₄)

Primary Source Gland: Leukocytes (mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, macrophages)

Summary
LTD₄ is a lipid signaling mediator driving smooth muscle contraction and vascular permeability during inflammatory responses.

Lipocalin-2 (NGAL)

Primary Source Gland: Neutrophils; liver; adipose; kidney; epithelium (broad tissue expression)

Summary
LCN2 binds siderophores and interfaces with 24p3R to help coordinate iron trafficking, innate defense, and metabolic signaling within normal physiology.

Lipoxin A₄ (LXA₄)

Primary Source Gland: Leukocytes (neutrophils/monocytes), platelets, epithelial/endothelial cells (transcellular)

Summary
LXA₄ is a resolution-phase lipid mediator that tempers leukocyte trafficking and promotes non-phlogistic clearance.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Primary Source Gland: Anterior pituitary (gonadotrophs)

Summary
LH drives gonadal steroidogenesis and, in females, ovulation.

Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (M-CSF / CSF1)

Primary Source Gland: Macrophages, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, stromal cells, epithelial cells, tumor cells

Summary
M-CSF is a macrophage-regulating cytokine that supports monocyte differentiation and macrophage survival. In cancer biology, elevated M-CSF signaling is strong…

Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF)

Primary Source Gland: Macrophages, monocytes, T-cells, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, tumor cells

Summary
MIF is a major inflammatory cytokine-like factor involved in macrophage activation, chronic inflammation, angiogenesis, survival signaling, and tumor microenvi…

Melatonin

Primary Source Gland: Pineal gland (also gut and retina produce local melatonin)

Summary
Indoleamine made from serotonin at night that signals circadian “darkness” via MT1/MT2 receptors.

Midkine (MDK)

Primary Source Gland: Embryonic tissues, endothelial cells, macrophages, fibroblasts, epithelial cells, tumor cells

Summary
Midkine is a developmental growth factor strongly linked with angiogenesis, inflammatory signaling, tumor microenvironment activation, invasion, metastasis, an…

Motilin

Primary Source Gland: Entestinal M-cells (duodenum, proximal jejunum)

Summary
Motilin coordinates interdigestive “housekeeping” contractions that clear the stomach and proximal small bowel.

Myostatin (GDF-8)

Primary Source Gland: Skeletal muscle (myocytes/osteocytes context)

Summary
Muscle-derived peptide that limits muscle growth via ActRIIB→SMAD2/3, restraining myogenesis and hypertrophy programs.

Müllerian Inhibiting Substance (AMH)

Primary Source Gland: Testis (Sertoli cells, fetal); Ovary (granulosa cells)

Summary
AMH signals via AMHR2 and SMAD1/5/8 to drive Müllerian duct regression embryonically and to modulate follicle dynamics and FSH sensitivity postnatally.

Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)

Primary Source Gland: No single endocrine gland; produced by neurons, glia, immune cells, and peripheral target tissues.

Summary
NGF promotes survival and plasticity of select neurons and coordinates trophic repair signals.

Nesfatin-1

Primary Source Gland: Hypothalamus (arcuate, PVN); also pancreas, adipose, gastric mucosa

Summary
Nesfatin-1 (from NUCB2) contributes to central satiety signaling and supports glucose-homeostasis contexts through hypothalamic pathways.

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

Primary Source Gland: Sympathetic postganglionic neurons; adrenal medulla

Summary
Catecholamine from sympathetic neurons and adrenal medulla that raises vascular tone and supports acute energy mobilization.

Osteocalcin (hormonal form)

Primary Source Gland: Bone (osteoblasts)

Summary
Osteocalcin (bone-derived) links bone remodeling with endocrine signals to pancreas, muscle, and other tissues within normal physiology.

Osteopontin (SPP1)

Primary Source Gland: Osteoblasts, immune cells, macrophages, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, tumor cells

Summary
Osteopontin is a secreted matrix-signaling protein involved in inflammation, immune-cell recruitment, angiogenesis, tissue remodeling, and metastatic tumor bio…

Oxyntomodulin

Primary Source Gland: Intestinal L-cells

Summary
Satiety-linked gut peptide modulating intake and energy use.

Oxytocin

Primary Source Gland: Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis); synthesized in hypothalamus

Summary
Oxytocin acts via OXTR to trigger smooth-muscle contraction for milk ejection and parturition; also modulates social signaling.

Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP)

Primary Source Gland: Pancreatic PP-cells (F-cells)

Summary
Meal-responsive peptide modulating GI and appetite functions.

Pancreatic Polypeptide (PPY)

Primary Source Gland: Pancreas (PP cells)

Summary
Pancreatic peptide that modulates exocrine secretion and appetite pathways.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Primary Source Gland: Parathyroid glands

Summary
PTH helps maintain calcium balance through coordinated actions in bone, kidney, and vitamin D activation.

Parathyroid Hormone-related Protein (PTHrP)

Primary Source Gland: Many tissues (breast, placenta, bone, endothelium)

Summary
PTH-like endocrine/paracrine factor with developmental and calcium-transport roles.

Platelet-Activating Factor (PAF)

Primary Source Gland: Leukocytes, platelets, endothelial cells, and select epithelial tissues

Summary
PAF is a membrane-derived lipid mediator that modulates platelet activation and immune cell interactions.

Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF)

Primary Source Gland: Platelets (no endocrine gland); produced in many tissues locally

Summary
PDGF coordinates fibroblast activity, matrix production, and angiogenesis during normal tissue repair.

Pleiotrophin (PTN)

Primary Source Gland: Neural tissue, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, epithelial cells, macrophages, tumor cells

Summary
Pleiotrophin is a developmental growth factor strongly linked with angiogenesis, stem-cell signaling, invasion, metastatic progression, and tumor microenvironm…

Pregnenolone

Primary Source Gland: Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata/reticularis); also gonads; some neurosteroidogenesis in CNS glia/neurons

Summary
First committed steroid of the pathway; precursor for all major steroid classes after tissue-specific conversions

Progesterone

Primary Source Gland: Ovary (corpus luteum); placenta (pregnancy); adrenal cortex contributes smaller amounts

Summary
Progesterone is the principal progestogen coordinating luteal-phase and gestational endometrial programs, acting via PR with both genomic and rapid effects.

Prolactin

Primary Source Gland: Anterior pituitary (lactotrophs)

Summary
Prolactin supports milk production and broader endocrine-metabolic coordination.

Prostacyclin (PGI₂)

Primary Source Gland: Vascular endothelium (no single gland)

Summary
Endothelium-derived eicosanoid that raises cAMP via IP receptors to dilate vessels and strongly inhibit platelet aggregation, supporting vascular homeostasis.

Prostaglandin D₂ (PGD₂)

Primary Source Gland: No single gland; high production by mast cells; PTGDS in brain/choroid plexus; adipose tissue

Summary
Locally acting eicosanoid from arachidonic acid that shapes allergic inflammation, vascular/bronchial tone, sleep, and adipose biology via DP1/DP2 receptors.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂)

Primary Source Gland: Produced widely—immune cells, endothelium, epithelium, reproductive tissues (no single “gland”)

Summary
A locally acting eicosanoid made via COX and PGE synthases that shapes inflammation, vascular tone, gastric protection, kidney flow, and reproduction.

Relaxin

Primary Source Gland: Corpus luteum (primary in pregnancy); also placenta and reproductive tissues

Summary
Relaxin contributes to connective-tissue flexibility, vascular adaptation, and tissue fluid dynamics.

Renin

Primary Source Gland: Juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney (renal cortex)

Summary
Renin initiates the biochemical steps that help the body adapt to changes in hydration and circulatory volume.

Resistin

Primary Source Gland: Primarily secreted by monocytes, macrophages, and immune-linked stromal cells in humans.

Summary
Resistin participates in metabolic signaling networks that coordinate glucose handling, lipid usage, and immune-linked regulatory adaptation.

Retinol Binding Protein 4 (RBP4)

Primary Source Gland: Liver (major source); also adipose tissue.

Summary
RBP4 transports retinol bound to TTR, engages STRA6/LRP2 to supply tissues, and supports retinoid-dependent gene regulation in normal physiology.

Reverse T3 (rT3)

Primary Source Gland: Peripheral tissues (DIO3); minor contribution from thyroid

Summary
Inactive iodothyronine formed from T4 that does not drive thyroid receptor–mediated gene expression.

Secretin

Primary Source Gland: Duodenal S-cells

Summary
Secretin regulates bicarbonate secretion and coordinates digestion between the stomach and small intestine.

Selenoprotein P (SELENOP)

Primary Source Gland: Liver (major source); also adipose tissue

Summary
Secreted selenium-carrier that delivers selenium to tissues via ApoER2/megalin receptors for selenoenzyme biosynthesis and redox/thyroid physiology.

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)

Primary Source Gland: Enterochromaffin cells (GI tract); CNS raphe nuclei

Summary
Indoleamine made from tryptophan that regulates gut motility, vascular tone, platelet uptake, and neuroendocrine signaling; precursor to melatonin.

Somatostatin

Primary Source Gland: Hypothalamus; pancreatic delta cells; gastrointestinal mucosal cells

Summary
Somatostatin functions as the body’s regulatory brake, slowing hormone release and digestive flow.

Spexin (NPQ)

Primary Source Gland: Hypothalamus/brain; also adipose, GI tract (reported peripheral expression)

Summary
Spexin (NPQ) is a neuropeptide that signals through GALR2/3 to support satiety circuits and energy-metabolic coordination within normal physiology.

Testosterone

Primary Source Gland: Testes (Leydig cells); lesser: ovaries and adrenal cortex

Summary
Testosterone signals via AR to coordinate reproductive development, anabolic programs in muscle and bone, erythropoiesis, and aspects of metabolism.

Thromboxane A₂ (TXA₂)

Primary Source Gland: No single gland; major production by platelets; also vascular/endothelial/smooth-muscle and immune cells

Summary
Locally acting eicosanoid that signals through TP receptors to increase intracellular Ca²⁺ and Rho/ROCK, driving platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction.

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Primary Source Gland: Anterior pituitary (thyrotrophs)

Summary
TSH directs thyroid hormone synthesis by activating the thyroid follicular cell.

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)

Primary Source Gland: Hypothalamus (paraventricular nucleus)

Summary
TRH stimulates TSH release and regulates the thyroid hormone axis.

Thyroxine (T4)

Primary Source Gland: Thyroid gland (follicular cells)

Summary
T4 is the major circulating thyroid hormone and is primarily a precursor for the more active T3.

Transforming Growth Factor Alpha (TGF-α)

Primary Source Gland: Epithelial tissues, tumor cells, macrophages, keratinocytes, gastrointestinal mucosa

Summary
TGF-alpha is a local growth factor that activates EGFR signaling. In cancer biology it is important because excess EGFR ligand signaling can drive proliferatio…

Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β)

Primary Source Gland: Produced widely (immune cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, chondrocytes, muscle). Not limited to a single gland.

Summary
TGF-β helps coordinate tissue structure, matrix remodeling, and cellular differentiation tone.

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Primary Source Gland: Thyroid gland (via T4 conversion and minor direct secretion)

Summary
T3 is the active form of thyroid hormone that directly regulates cellular metabolism.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α)

Primary Source Gland: Produced primarily by activated macrophages; also skeletal muscle (myokine context), adipose tissue, endothelium

Summary
TNF-α coordinates immune signaling and cellular stress responses.

Urodilatin

Primary Source Gland: Kidney (distal nephron: distal tubule/collecting duct epithelium)

Summary
Renal natriuretic peptide that raises cGMP via NPR-A to increase sodium/water excretion and support vascular relaxation.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)

Primary Source Gland: No single endocrine gland; produced locally by many cell types (endothelium, fibroblasts, macrophages, muscle).

Summary
VEGF coordinates endothelial growth, survival, and new vessel formation for normal adaptive perfusion.

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)

Primary Source Gland: Enteric neurons (gut), also found in CNS and some pulmonary tissues

Summary
VIP promotes smooth muscle relaxation and coordinated digestive flow.

α-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (α-MSH)

Primary Source Gland: Anterior pituitary; hypothalamic arcuate nucleus neurons

Summary
α-MSH signals through melanocortin receptors to coordinate pigmentation and energy state cues.

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